Cleopatra VII of Egypt

By: Lauren E. Alford | Spring 2012

[Above: A bust of Cleopatra]

     Cleopatra VII ruled Egypt from 51 BCE to the time of her death in 30 BCE. She descended from a line of “scrappy, hard-living” Macedonians, the Ptolemies. Although the Ptolemies were not descended from Egyptian pharaohs, they assumed the place of these pharaohs and did a phenomenal job of convincing their subjects to consider them as such. Egyptian custom was that there be two co-rulers on the throne and, as a result of this custom, the Ptolemies made it a practice to marry and rule alongside each other (although not always in the most peaceful manner). Over the generations, the Ptolemies engaged in what has come to be known among historians as an “orgy of pillage and murder” due to their willingness to murder and steal from family members in the pursuit of wealth, power, and the throne. Of the fifteen or so Ptolemy family marriages, at least ten were full brother-sister unions. The Ptolemy family tree is a confusing, jumbled array of brother-sister, uncle-niece, and cousin-cousin unions. In fact, although we know her as Cleopatra VII, Cleopatra was actually only the sixth Cleopatra in the Ptolemy dynasty. This error may be credited to the complicated marriages and tortured family history, or to the fact that almost all female Ptolemies were given one of three names: Arsinoe, Berenice, or Cleopatra. [Above: The Ptolemy family tree]

     Cleopatra was born in Alexandria, Egypt in 69 BCE. She was the second of three daughters and two younger brothers followed her birth. From an early age, Cleopatra had the “best education available in the Hellenistic world.” The most prestigious scholars were her tutors and she had access to the Library of Alexandria, one of the greatest centers of learning in existence at that time. In 56 BCE, Cleopatra began her rhetoric and philosophy training at the age of 13 or 14. She had a dedicated tutor, most likely a eunuch, that trained her in rhetorical practices, such as declamation, and educated her on rhetorical principles. Cleopatra completed her rhetoric and philosophy training in 51 BCE, right around the time of her father’s death.

     In the spring of 51 BCE, at the age of 18, Cleopatra ascended to the Egyptian throne with her younger brother, Ptolemy XIII, who was 10 years old. Unfortunately, the two children inherited a kingdom strife with many economic difficulties, such as widespread famines and deficient floods of the Nile. Under severe pressure, the relationship between Cleopatra and her younger brother began to break down. In August 51 BCE, Cleopatra dropped Ptolemy’s name from official documents. Coins of currency at the time featured Cleopatra’s face alone. (Usually coins of currency featured the faces of both co-rulers.)

     Three years later, in 48 BCE, Ptolemy managed to secure more power and influence than his sister. He forced Cleopatra to flee Egypt, her own country, at the age of 21. As Cleopatra spent the summer raising an army in Middle Egypt, Palestine, and Southern Syria, a civil war was waging in Rome. Caesar defeated Pompey the Great in Greece and Pompey fled to Alexandria to seek refuge. Despite the fact that Cleopatra’s father had been a supporter of Pompey the Great, Ptolemy XIII ordered his men to behead Pompey on a beach in Alexandria on September 28, 48 BCE. Ptolemy hoped this would elicit Caesar’s favor. When Caesar arrived in Alexandria two days later, he was outraged to find his fellow Roman consul, albeit enemy, murdered in such a fashion. Caesar seized the Egyptian capital and posed himself as arbiter between the two feuding siblings, Cleopatra and Ptolemy. [Above: A bust of Caesar made after his death]

     In October 48 BCE, Cleopatra heard of Caesar’s anger toward Ptolemy and was eager to take advantage of it. She snuck into the Alexandrian palace to meet with Caesar, unbeknownst to her brother. Cleopatra pled her case to Caesar and attempted to win his favor. It is unclear what exactly happened during their encounter, but one thing is for certain: a month later, in early November 48 BCE, Cleopatra realized she was pregnant with Caesar’s child. A couple months later, on January 13, 47 BCE, Ptolemy XIII was mysteriously found dead, apparently having drowned in the Nile during a battle. With her co-ruler deceased, Cleopatra was forced to marry her other brother, Ptolemy XIV, who was 11 years old at the time.

     On June 23, 47 BCE, Cleopatra gave birth to Caesar’s son, whom she named Ptolemy XV Caesar. He was nicknamed Caesarion. A year later, in the summer of 46 BCE, Cleopatra sailed to Rome to introduce Caesarion to Caesar for the first time. Despite his marriage to another woman, Caesar entertained Cleopatra in a large estate on the Tiber River and publicly acknowledged Caesarion as their son. It was during her time in Rome that Cleopatra first met Cicero, the great Roman scholar and orator. At the time, Cicero was 60 years old and widely considered “the most silver- and acid-tongued of Romans, who, it was noted, could always be counted on for ‘a great deal of barking.’” At some point during their encounter, Cleopatra promised Cicero a book or manuscript, most likely from her library in Alexandria. For whatever reason, Cleopatra failed to deliver the manuscript. To add insult to injury, she called upon Cicero’s friend, and ignored Cicero, for counsel. Extremely embarrassed, Cicero publicly spoke out against her, proclaiming, “I detest the queen.”

     On March 15, 44 BCE, Caesar was murdered. He left his title and three-fourths of his fortune to his young nephew, Octavian, who was to be looked after by Caesar’s contemporary, Mark Antony. Cleopatra left Rome a month later, in April, to return to Alexandria, uncertain of what Caesar’s death meant for her and for Egypt. Back in Alexandria, perhaps prompted by the murder of Caesar, Cleopatra wasted no time in poisoning her brother-husband, Ptolemy XIV. Shortly thereafter, on September 2, 44 BCE, Caesarion was named co-ruler, alongside Cleopatra, at the age of 3.

     In 43 BCE, Cleopatra became involved in yet another Roman civil war. This civil war was waged between Caesar’s supporters, Antony and Octavian, and Caesar’s murderers, Cassius and Brutus. Although Cleopatra supported Antony and Octavian, some of her generals, and in particular her military commander in Cyprus, went against her will and supported Cassius by providing him with supplies. In 41 BCE, Antony called upon Cleopatra to visit him in Tarsus and explain her support in the civil war. Over the span of a few weeks in Tarsus, Cleopatra wined, dined, and convinced Antony to ally with her. Cleopatra sailed home to Alexandria, leaving Antony with a list of her demands, one of which was to kill her rebellious sister, Arsinoe. He did. [Right: A bust of Mark Antony]

     In the winter of 43 BCE, Antony visited Cleopatra in Alexandria and they began their love affair and political alliance. On December 25, 40 BCE, Cleopatra gave birth to twins, a boy and a girl named Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene, respectively. In August 36 BCE, Cleopatra gave birth to her fourth child (her third with Antony), a boy named Ptolemy Philadelphus. Soon after Ptolemy Philadelphus’s birth, Antony gave all of Cleopatra’s children territories over which to rule. He also pronounced Cleopatra the "Queen of Kings."

     Back in Rome, Octavian was upset and disgusted. Octavian’s sister, Octavia, was married to Antony and disgraced by his affair with Cleopatra. Additionally, Octavian felt Antony was giving Cleopatra too much power and he worried about the implications of her influence on Roman politics. In January 32 BCE, Octavian began speaking out against Antony in Rome, causing Antony to divorce Octavian in May of that year. Outraged, Octavian declared war on Cleopatra in October, knowing Antony would have no choice but to take her side. On August 1, 30 BCE, Octavian invaded Alexandria and a desperate Antony committed suicide. Cleopatra had locked herself in an Alexandrian mausoleum, which she had ordered her servants to fill with most of Egypt’s wealth. On August 12, 30 BCE, Cleopatra killed herself after hearing of Octavian’s plans to take her and her children back to Rome with him. The circumstances of her suicide are unclear, but the popularly held belief is that she killed herself by allowing a poisonous snake to bite her arm. Shortly after Cleopatra’s suicide, Octavian murdered Caesarion, who was 17 years old, because, as Caesar’s son, he posed a threat to Octavian’s rule. Cleopatra’s three other children, those who were fathered by Antony, were taken to Rome and looked after by Octavia, the wife whom Antony had abandoned in order to carry on his affair with Cleopatra.

     Although the circumstances of her death, and some parts of her life, are unknown, Cleopatra remains one of the most famous women to have lived. She ruled Egypt for 22 years and, in that time, amassed an empire of unrivaled wealth. Despite her indelible name, our image of her is quite blurry. Her coin portraits, which she approved and issued during her lifetime, are the only representations of her physical appearance that can be accepted as authentic. [Left: Various Cleopatra coin portraits]

Biography & Images Source:

     Schiff, Stacy. Cleopatra: A Life. New York: Back Bay Books, 2011. Print.